Byzantine Civilisation – Sir Steven Runciman

An active diplomacy was kept up, to embroil foreign nations with each other and so maintain an equilibrium that would prevent any potential enemy from invading Imperial territory. Very little information has survived as to the organisation of Byzantine diplomacy. The Foreign Secretary of the Empire was the Logothete of the Course, the minister who was, it seems, in closest touch with the Emperor and interviewed him daily. (2) Foreign business was therefore largely directed by the Emperor himself. It was the Logothete’s business to see to the reception of foreign embassies, and probably he too fitted out the Imperial embassies to foreign courts and selected the personnel.

But certain diplomatic affairs were conducted by the local authorities. Thus it was usually the Strategus of Cherson (in the Crimea) who arranged the 1. Cecaumenus, Noutheticos, 101. 2. See above, pp. 91-2. missions to the nations of the Steppes. In the story of Justinian Il’s adventures it was from Cherson that the embassies to the Chazars set out.

(1) Under Zoe Carbopsina it was the Strategus John Bogas who visited the Petchenegs to incite them against Bulgaria; (2) and Constantine VII regarded Cherson as the proper base for Steppe diplomacy. (3) Possibly the Toparch of Gothia, an official who apparently existed in the early Tenth Century, was the head of the diplomatic bureau of Cherson.(4) In Italy it seems that the local Strategus or Catepan dealt with the Arabs, (5) though big embassies to the Italian courts were equipped at Constantinople.

(6) In the mid-Tenth Century it was not the Strategus but the Archbishop of Otranto, Vlattus, who journeyed to El-Mahdia to buy back Christian prisoners; but then he had influence there, his sister being in the Calif’s harem, and when he returned unofficially to continue his good work, he was put to death. (7) There was no Diplomatic Service in the modern sense. Diplomatic establishments were not kept up permanently in any foreign country: though the Strategus of Cherson kept a large bureau which gathered information about the politics of the Steppes.

There were probably certain officials who were always sent out as ambassadors when they were required. In Leo VI’s reign the Magister Leo Choerosphacta was sent on embassies first to Baghdad and later to the court of Bulgaria. (8) It was usually the same ministers who would go, whenever a truce was arranged with the Arabs, to conduct the exchange of prisoners on the 1.

Theophanes, 378. 2. Theophanes Continuatus, 387. 3. Constantine Porphyrogennetus, op. cit., 72, 244 sqq. 4. Uspenski, Russia and Byzantium (in Russian), passim. 5. E.g. Cedrenus, VI, 355. 6. E.g. Constantine Porphyrogennetus, De Ceremoniis, 661. 7. Vita S. Nili, M.P.G., vol. 120, 117-20. 8.

Site of Constantinople – The Decay of the Roman World- Christianity – Diocletian and the New Monarchy – Constantine – The Victory of the Church – The New Capital – The New Synthesis. II HISTORICAL OUTLINE 30 Historical Outline from 330 to 1453. III THE IMPERIAL CONSTITUTION AND FHE REIGN OF LAW 61 The Imperial Power – Its Popular Basis – Its Religious Basis – The Empress – Regencies -The Demes – The Senate – Law – The Law Under Justinian -: under the Isaurians: under the Macedonians – Canon Law.

IV THE ADMINISTRATION 81 The Emperor – The Imperial Family – Titles – Early Organisation – Justinian’s Reforms – The Theme System – The Administration in the Tenth Century – The Government of the Paleologi – Revenues – Taxation – Expenditure – Paternalism – The Land Question – Justice. V RELIGION AND THE CHURCH 108 The Patriarchate of Constantinople – Organisation – Imperial Control – The Great Heresies – Schisms – The Roman Question – Missions – Daughter Churches – Tolerance – Superstition – Personnel.

VI THE ARMY: THE NAVY: THE DIPLOMATIC SERVICE 136 The Army – Fourth Century Reforms – The Foederati – Tiberius and Maurice – The Themes – The Tagmata – Arms – Strategy – Military Science – Pay – Auxiliary Service – Foreign Mercenaries – Decline. The Navy Under the Heraclians – Decline – Revival in The Ninth Century – Second Decline – Paleologian Navy – Ships – Greek Fire.

Diplomatic Organisation – Formality – Subtlety – The Balance of Power – Diplomatic Marriages – Foreign Pretenders – Expense. VII COMMERCE 163 The Eastern Trade – Cosmas Indicopleustes – The Arab Conquests – Ninth and Tenth Centuries – The Crusades – 8 Concessions to the Italians – Decline – Manufactures – Imports – Regulations – State Control – Guilds – The Currency. VIII TOWN AND COUNTRY LIFE 179 Ethnography – Slavs – Armenians – Constantinople – Its Appearance – The Court – The Hippodrome – The Nobility – Wealth – Self-Made Men – The Poor – Slavery – The Middle Classes – Eunuchs – Trade – Provincial Towns – Country Life Agrarian Problems – Byzantine Characteristics: Piety – Influence of Saints – Superstition – Cruelty and Corruption – Love of Beauty – Pessimism.

IX EDUCATION AND LEARNING 223 The Education of Boys – Constantine’s University – Church School’s Bardas’ University – Constantine IX’s Law- Schools – Education under the Nicæans and the Paleologi – Female Education – Foreign Languages – History – Philosophy – Foreign Languages – Geography – Medicine – The Hospitals. X BYZANTINE LITERATURE 240 Language – Prose – Religious Works – Historians – Hagiography – Memoirs – Handbooks – Fiction – Letters – Poetry – Hymns – Music – Epigrams – Longer Poems – Chansons de Geste.

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